psych101.txt

# Intro to the Science of Psychology

* What is the study of cyber emotional intelligence?

The study of the assumptions we make about people based on their online
personality.

* What are two unifying concepts for psychological science?

1. Studying behaviour.
2. Employs scientific method

* What is the scientific method?

A way of learning about the world through collecting observations, developing
theories to explain them, and using theories to make predictions.

* What is a hypothesis?

A testable prediction about processes that can be observed and measured.

* What is a pseudoscience?

An idea that is present as science but does not actually utilize basic
principles of scientific thinking of procedure.

* What is a theory?

An explanation for a broad range of observations that also generates new
hypotheses and integrates numerous findings into a coherent whole.

* What is the biopsychosocial model?

A means of explaining behaviour as a product of biological, psychological, and
sociocultural factors.

* What are some biological influences?

Brain structures, drugs.

* What are some psychological influences?

Memories, emotions, personalities.

* What are some socialcultural influences?

Family, peers, culture.

* What is scientific literacy?

The ability to understand, analyze, and apply scientific information.

* What are the 6 ways to develop critical thinking?

1. Be curious.
2. Examine the nature and source of the evidence.
3. Examine assumptions and biases.
4. Avoid overly emotional thinking.
5. Tolerate ambiguity.
6. Consider alternative viewpoints and interpretations.

* What is the principle of parsimony?

The simplest of all competing explanations should be the one we accept.

* What is empricism?

A philosophical tenet that knowledge comes through experience.

* What is determinism?

The belief that all events are governed by lawful, cause-and-effect
relationships.

* What were the Greek's four temperaments:

Sanguine (blood): Impulsive, pleasure-seeking, charismatic
Choleric (yellow bile): Ambitious, energetic, aggressive
Melancholic (black bile): Independent, perfectionistic, introverted
Phlegmatic (phlegm): Quiet, relaxed, content with life

* What does zeitgeist refer to?

A general set of beliefs of a particular culture at a specific time in history.

* What is materialism?

The belief that humans are composed exclusively of physical matter.

* What is dualism?

The belief that there are properties of humans that are not material.

* What is psychophysics?

The study of the relationship between the physical world and the mental
representation of that world.

* What is clinical psychology?

The field that concentrates on the diagnosis and treatment of psychological
disorders.

* What is the idea of brain localization?

That certain parts of the brain control specific mental abilities and
personalities.

* What is psychoanalysis?

The approach that attempts to explain how behaviour and personality and
influenced by unconscious processes.

* What is the nature/nurture relationship?

The inquiry into how heredity and environment influence behaviour and mental
processes

* What is empiricism?

The belief that all knowledge is based on experience derived from the senses.

* What is functionalism?

The study of the purpose and function of behaviour and conscious experience.

* What is evolutionary psychology?

The approach that interprets and explains modern human behaviour in terms of
forces acting upon our distant ancestors.

* What is structualism?

The attempt to analyize conscious experience by breaking it down to basic
elements, and understand how those elements work together.

* What is behaviourism?

The approach that studied only observable behaviour, with little reference to
mental events or instincts.

* What is humanistic psychology?

The approach that focuses on each person's freedom to act and rational thought.

* What is Hebb's Law?

The idea that memory is related to cellular activity.

* What is gestalt psychology?

The approach where psychologists need to focus on the whole of perception and
experience, rather than its parts.

* What is cognitive psychology?

An approach that focuses on memory, thinking, and language.

* What is social psychology?

The study of the influence of other people on our behaviour.

* What is personality psychology?

The study of how different personality characteristics can influence how we
think and act.

* What is cross-cultural psychology?

The field that draws comparisons about individual and group behaviour among
cultures.

* What are the 5 characteristics of quality scientific research?

1. It is based on measurements that are objective, valid, and reliable.
2. It can be generalized
3. It tried to reduce bias.
4. It is made public.
5. It can be replicated.

* When is a measurement objective?

When it is the same across instruments and observers.

* What is a variable?

An objective, concept, or event being measured.

* What is an operational definition?

A statement that describes the procedures and specific measures used to record
observations.

* What does validity refer to w.r.t measurements?

The degree to which an instrument or procedure actually measures what it claims
to measure.

* When is a measurement reliable?

When it provides consistent and stable answers across multiple observations
and points in time.

* What is test-retest reliability?

Whether scores are consistent between test sessions.

* What is alternate-forms reliability?

Whether different forms of the same test produce the same results.

* What is inter-rater reliability?

Whether different raters agree on the measurements.

* What is generalizability?

The degree to which one set of results can be applied to other situations.

* What is the population w.r.t research?

The group that researchers want to generalize about.

* What is a sample w.r.t research?

A select group of population members.

* What is a random sample?

Every individual in the population has an equal chance of being included.

* What is a convenience sample?

Samples of individuals who are the most readily available.

* What is ecological validity?

Results of a study can be applied to/repeated in the natural environment.

* What is the Hawthorne effect?

Behaviours sometimes change as a result of being observed.

* What are demand characteristics?

Inadvertent cues given off that provide information about how participants are
expected to behave.

* How does social desirability affect experiments?

People are likely to respond in ways that increase the chances they will be
viewed favourably.

* What is a placebo effect?

A measurable and experienced improvement in health that cannot be attributed to
medication or treatment.

* What is anonymity w.r.t research?

Individual's responses cannot be linked back.

* What is confidentiality w.r.t research?

Results will only be read by the researchers.

* What is a single-blind study?

Participants do not know the true purpose of the study, or do not know which
type of treatment they are receiving.

* What is a double-blind study?

Neither participants nor researchers knows the exact treatment for an
individual.

* When is a hypothesis falsible?

When it is precise enough that it could be proven false.

* What is anecdotal evidence?

An individual story or testimony that is used to make a claim as evidence.

* What is data selection bias?

Choosing only data that fits ones views.

* What is an appeal to authority?

The belief in an expert's claims even with no supporting data.

* What is an appeal to common sense?

A claim that appears to be sound, but lacks supporting scientific evidence.

* What is a case study?

An in-depth report about the details of a specific case.

* What is a naturalistic observation?

Unobtrusively observing and recording behaviour in the subject's natural
environment.

* What is self-reporting?

A method in which responses are providing by the people being studied.

* What does correlational research involve?

Measuring the degree of association between two or more variables.

* What is the third variable problem?

The possibility that a third variable is actually responsible for a
correlation.

* What is a random assignment?

A technique for dividing samples into two or more groups in which
participants are equally likely to be placed in any condition of the experiment.

* What is a confounding variable?

A variable outside of the researcher's control that might affect the results.

* What is a between-subjects design?

Different people get exposed to different experiments.

* What is a within-subjects design?

People get exposed to all experiments.

* What is quasi-experimental research?

Groups compared are selected based on predetermined characteristics.

* What is an research ethics board?

A committee of researchers charged with the protection of human participants.

* What is deception w.r.t research?

Misleading participants of the true topic or hypothesis.

* Why should researchers store their data after they already published?

Because others might want to reproduce or reinterpret their work.

* What is an example of scientific misconduct?

Faking test results.

* What is the 3 criteria for an animal study?

1. Behaviours must be close.
2. Brain structures must be close.
3. Response must be similar.

* What is the ABCs of psychology?

Affect (feelings, emotion, mood)
Behaviour (actions, responses, performance)
Cognition (thoughts, decisions, attitudes)

* What is the basic model of psychology?

Environment x Person => Behaviour => Outcomes

* What is psychodynamic psychology?

The investigation of subconscious forces in the person.

* What are the goals of science?

To understand, explain, predict, and control the world.

* What is the theory refinement process?

Develop theory, form hypothesis, carry out observations, analyze results,
refine theory.

* What are the 3 criterias of science?

1. Empirical
2. Replicable
3. Falsifiable

# Developmental Psychology

* What is developmental psychology?

The study of human characteristics across the lifespan.

* What are the two ways to tracking change over time?

Cross-sectional: Different people of different age.
Longitudinal: Follow people over time.

* What are cohort effects?

Differences due to age periods.

* What the stage theory?

Development happens in a series of stages, transitions are big.

* What is a sensitive period w.r.t development?

A period where exposure to a certain type of stimulation is needed for
normal development of an ability.

* What are the 3 stages before birth?

Germinal. 0-2wks. The zygote is spliting.
Embryonic. 2-8wks. Emybro develops organs.
Fetal. 8-birth. Fetus develops muscles and organs begin to specialize.

* What are 3 reflexes that babies have?

Rooting: To suck.
Moro: To latch on when falling.
Grasping: To hold on with their hands.

* What are the 3 things that happen to a baby's brain after birth?

1. Myelination of axons.
2. Synaptogensis, lots of connections between neurons are formed
3. Synaptic pruning, useless connections are pruned.

* How do we help premature babies?

By using NIDCAP. They have improved skills over preterm babies that do not.

* What is the core knowledge hypothesis?

Infants have inborn abilities to understanding some key aspects of their life.

* What is cognitive development?

The study of changes in memory, thought, and reasoning processes that occur
throughout the lifespan.

* What is assimilation?

People fit new information into the belief systems they already possess.
Conservative process.
"Still a bow-wow"

* What is accommodation?

People modify their belief structures based on experience.
Creative process.
"It's not a bow-wow, it's a cat!"

* What are Piaget's 4 stages of cognitive development?

1. Sensorimotor (0-2 years)
2. Preoperational (2-7 years)
3. Concrete operational (7-11 years)
4. Formal operational (11 years-adult)

* What are the properties of the sensorimotor stage w.r.t cognitive development?

Cognitive experience is based on direct sensory experience.
Understand that objects exist even when you can't see them.

* What are the properties of the preoperational stage w.r.t cognitive development?

Understanding symbols, language, drawings.
Trying to understand conservation.

* What are the properties of the concrete operational stage w.r.t cognitive development?

Can perform mental transformations on physically present objects.
Transitivity of numbers.

* What are the properties of the formal operational stage w.r.t cognitive development?

Can reason abstractly and hypothetically.

* What is conservation?

The concept that the quantity of an object is not the same as the appearance of
the object.

* What is the concept of the zone of proximal development?

Development is ideal when children attempt skills that are just beyond what
they can do alone, but they have guidance from adults that are attentive to
their progress.

Scaffolding uses this idea to teach kids.

* What is attachment?

The enduring emotional bond between individuals.

* What did Harlow's experiment with the cloth monkeys show?

That attachment is based on feeling secure, which is based on physical comfort.

* What are the 4 different attachment styles?

1. Secure attachment : "checking in"
2. Insecure attachment - Anxious/resistant : "clingy"
3. Insecure attachment - Avoidant : "doesn't care"
4. Disorganized : "love/hate"

* What is self-awareness?

The ability to recognize one's individuality.

* What is egocentricism?

Considering only one's own perspective.

* What is theory of mind?

The ability to recognize the thoughts of others, and understand that they can be
different to one's own.

* What are the two psychobiological behavioural systems?

Attachment behavioural system: Focused on meeting one's own needs for security.
Caregiving behavioural system: Focused on meeting the needs of others.

* What are some problems with using conditional approaches to get children to do tasks?

- The children won't continually do the task unless you continually reward them.
- Children associate good feelings with rewards.

* What is introjection?

The internalization of the regard of significant others.
Caring about what others think about you.

* What is inductive discipline?

Explain the consequences of a child's actions on other people.

# 6.3

* What is latent learning?

Learning that is not immediately expressed by a response until the organism
is tested for it.

* What is the difference between S-R and S-O-R theory?

S-R theory thinks that differences in individuals are due to their learning
histories.

S-O-R theory thinks that differences in individuals are due to their cognitive
interpretation of the situation.

* What does observational learning involve?

Changes in behaviour and knowledge from watching others.

* What are the 4 processes involved in observational learning?

1. Attention
2. Memory
3. Ability to reproduce the task
4. Motivation

* What is imitation?

Recreating someone else's actions.

* What are mirror neurons?

Neurons that fire both when doing and action, and watching the same action.

# Slides

* What are the two theories of attachment?

1. Psychodynamic
2. Behaviourist

* What is the principle of monotropy?

Infants are genetically programmed to form an attachment with ONE responsive
caregiver.

# Memory

## 7.1

* What do stores do w.r.t memory?

Retain memory.

* What do control processes do w.r.t memory?

Shift information from one store to another.

* What does attention do w.r.t memory?

Shift information from sensory memory to STM.

* What does recall do w.r.t memory?

Shift information from LTM to STM.

* What does encoding do w.r.t memory?

Shift information from STM to LTM.

* How can we expand our short-term memory capacity?

Via chunking, organizing smaller units of information into a bigger one.

* What are the two ways we organize information in LTM?

1. Semantic categories (e.g. cat, mouse)
2. Sound or spelling of word.

* What is proactive/retroactive interference?

Things appearing first/last causing problems with memorization.

* What is the serial position effect?

People tend to remember things that a first and last in a list.

* What is working memory?

A model of short-term remembering that includes some memory components that can
temporarily store small amounts of information for a short period of time.

* What is the phonological loop?

A storage component of working memory that relies of rehearsal and stores
information as sounds.

* What is the visuospatial sketchpad?

A storage component of working memory that maintains visual images and spatial
layouts in visuospatial code.

* What is the episodic buffer?

A storage component of working memory that combines images and sounds into
story-like episodes.

* What is the central executive?

The control center of working memory. Coordinates attention and exchange
of information.

* What are declarative/explicit memories?

Memories we are consciously aware of, and can be verbalized.

* What are nondeclarative/implicit memories?

Actions that you can perform without awareness.

* What are episodic memories?

Declarative memories that are organized in episodes and use "I".
"I washed the car."

* What are semantic memories?

Declarative memories that include facts about the world.
"The capital of Canada is Ottawa."

* What are procedural memories?

Patterns of muscle movements.
"Muscle memory"

* What is priming?

Previous exposure to a stimulus will affect someone's later responses.

* What is long-term potentiation?

Enduring increase in connectivity and transmission of neural signals between
nerve cells that fire together.

* What is consolidation?

The process of converting short-term memories into long-term memories in the
brain. The hippocampus is responsible for consolidation.

* What is anterograde amnesia?

Cannot form new memories (after the incident).

* What is retrograde amnesia?

Cannot remember old memories (before the incident).

* What is storage w.r.t memories?

The time and manner in which information is retained between encoding and
retrieval.

* What is maintenance rehearsal?

Prolonging exposure to information by repeating it.

* What is elaborative rehearsal?

Prolonging exposure to information by thinking about it's meaning.

* What is shallow processing?

Processing of shallow characteristics such as spelling.

* What is deep processing?

Processing of the meaning of a word.

* What is the self-reference effect?

More likely to remember something if you can relate it to yourself.

* How can context affect memory?

You can forget things when entering a new context (context-dependent forgetting).
Or you can remember things when going back to the old context (context
reinstatement effect).

* How can state affect memory?

State-dependent learning/memory exists. Retrieval is more effective if your
internal state matches the state you were in during encoding.

* What is the problem of weapon focus?

People remember the gun much better than the person holding the gun.

* What is a flashbulb memory?

An extremely vivid and detailed memory and its conditions.

* What does the forgetting curve tell us?

Most of the forgetting happens right away, and then not much forgetting
happens afterwards.

* What is the method of loci?

Using mnemonics to connect words to locations.

* What is a schema?

An organized cluster of memory that constitutes one's knowledge about a thing.

* How do we use constructive memory to help remember events?

First we recall a generalized schema, and then we fill in details.

* What are the two ways the schemas can affect our memory?

1. Organization, things that fit our schemas are easier to recall.
2. Distinctiveness, if information is weird it is easy to remember, if it does
not fit our schema but isn't that weird it will be hard to remember.

* What is a false memory?

A memory of something that is incorrect or did not actually occur.

* What is the misinformation effect?

Information occurring after an event becomes part of the event.
"Asking if something happened could cause people to say yes".

* What is imagination inflation?

Increased confidence in a false memory after repeated imagination of the event.

* What does the DRM procedure say w.r.t memory?

People are very likely to misremember the "critical lure" being there, which is
a word should obviously be in the list, but isn't.

* What is a recovered memory?

## Slides

* What are the 3 stages of memory?

Encoding, storage, retrieval.

* How many pieces of information can we remember in STM?

7 +/- 2

# Neuropsychology

* What are genes?

The basic units of heredity.

* What is a genotype?

The genetic makeup of an organism.

* What are chromosomes?

Structures that are lined with all the genes.

* What is behaviour genomics?

The study of DNA and how genes are related to behaviour.

* What is behaviour genetics?

The study of how genes and the environment influence behaviour.

* What is heritability?

A statistic (0-1) representing the degree to which genetic differences
contribute to individual differences.
"Having a mouth: 0"
"Tasting something: >0"

* What the study of epigenetics tell us?

That experiences and events (e.g. grooming) can change gene expression.

* What does homozygous mean?

Person has two of the same (dominant or recessive) versions of the gene.

* What does heterozygous mean?

Person has both dominant and recessive versions of a gene.

* What is intrasexual selection?

Members of the same sex compete to win the opportunity to mate.

* What is intersexual selection?

Members of one sex select a mating partner based on their traits.

* What are the 3 reasons our brains are the most powerful?

1. More folds and groves.
2. More developed frontal lobe, responsible for planning and etc...
3. Neotony, brains keep growing after birth.

* What is evolution?

A change in the frequency of genes occurring in a population over time.

* What is the relationship between red and sex?

The colour red seems to be associated with sex the most.
Women wearing red clothes are perceived to be more interested in having sex.
Culture does not influence this effect.

## 3.2

* What is the soma?

The cell body that contains the nucleus.

* What are the dendrites?

Small branches from the soma that receive messages from other cells.

* What is the axon?

A long tail that transports information in the form of electrochemical
reactions.

* What are axon terminals?

Blubs at the end of the axon that contain neurotransmitters.

* What are neurotransmitters?

Chemicals that function as messengers between neurons.

* What are sensory neurons?

Neurons that receive information from the bodily senses.

* What are motor neurons?

Neurons that carry messages from the brain to muscles.

* What is myelin?

A fatty sheath that insulates axons, and allows for increased speed and
efficiency of neural communication.

* What is the refractory period w.r.t neurons?

The brief period in which a neuron cannot fire.

* What is the synaptic cleft?

The small space separating individual nerve cells.

* How do neurons communicate intensity?

By firing at a higher rate.

* What is reuptake w.r.t neurotransmitters?

A process where neurotransmitters are reabsorbed into the axon terminals from
the synapse.

* What does gluatamate do?

Excites nervous system; memory and autonomic nervous system reactions.

* What does GABA do?

Inhibits brain activity; lowers arousal, anxiety, and excitation; facilitates sleep.

* What does actylcholine do?

Movement; attention.

* What does dopamine do?

Control of movement; reward-seeking behaviour; cognition and attention.

* What does norepinephrine do?

Memory; attention to new or important stimuli; regulation of sleep and mood.

* What does serotonin do?

Regulation of sleep, appetite, mood.

* What are agnoists and antagonists w.r.t neurotransmitters?

Drugs that enhance or inhibit neurotransmitter activity.
Either by faking it or blocking things.

* What are hormones?

Chemical secreted by the glands of the endocrine system. They do not work
immediately and instead travel in the blood.

* What is the endocrine system?

The system that controls hormones.

* What do the adrenal glands do?

Release stress hormones.

* What are endorphines?

Hormones responsible for reducing pain and inducing pleasure.

* What is testosterone?

Hormone that drives physical and sexual development and surges during sex and
threats.

* What is substance P?

A neurotransmitter involved in the experience of pain.

## 3.3

* What encompasses the central nervous system?

The brain and spinal cord.

* What is the peripheral nervous system?

The nerves that transmit information between the CNS and the rest of the body.

* What encompasses the somatic nervous system?

The nerves that are responsible for voluntary movement, and receiving sensory
input.

* What encompasses the autonomic nervous system?

The nerves responsible for regulating the activity of organs and glands.

* What encompasses the sympathetic nervous system?

The nerves responsible for the fight-or-flight response.

* What is the parasympathetic nervous system?

The nerves responsible for helping maintaining homostatic balance.

* What is the brain stem?

The top most region of the spinal cord, containing the parts (pons and
medulla) to keep the body functioning. (e.g. heart rate)

* What is the hindbrain for?

Maintaining the body and interfacing with the outside world.

* What is the midbrain for?

Orienting visual and audio attention.

* What is the forebrain for?

High level basics such as emotion, memory, and motivation.

* What is the cerebal cortex for?

Planning, processing, and recognition.

* What is the difference between the left and right hemispheres of the brain?

Left is abstract and mathematical.
Right is visual and emotional.

* What is neuroplasticity?

The ability of the brain to change and rewire itself based on individual
experience.

* How does the human brain exhibit neuroplasticity?

Our brains prevent recovery from brain injury to prevent bad rewiring.
The area on the opposite hemisphere can take over the original's work.
Can reorganize neural regions.

# Sensation and perception

## 4.1

* What is sensation?

The process of detecting external events by sense organs, and turning those
events into neural signals.

* What is perception?

Attending to, organizing, and interpreting stimuli.

* What is tranduction?

Receptors transforming physical energy to neural impulses.

* What is sensory adaptation?

The reduction of activity in sensory receptors following repeated exposure.

* What is an absolute threshold w.r.t sensation and perception?

The minimum amount of energy needed for it to be reliably detected 50% of the
time.

* What is a difference threshold w.r.t sensation and perception?

The smallest difference between stimuli that can be reliably detected 50% of the
time.

* What does signal detection theory state?

Whether a stimulus is perceived depends on both sensory experience and the
subject's judgment.

* What is the figure-ground principle?

Objects tend to stand out against the background.

* What is inattentional blindness?

A failure to notice clearly visible events because attention is elsewhere.

* What's the effect of backwards messages?

We don't notice them unless they are pointed out.

## 4.2

* What is the effect of dark adaptation?

Our rods and cones become more sensitive to low light over time.

* How does the visual cortex process sight information?

Feature detection cells look for simple aspects of the image.
Features are sent to more specialized regions for things like movement and
colour.

* How does visual information travel through our brain?

Optic nerve => Optic chiasm => Nerve signal => Visual cortex.

* What is the function of the ventral stream of vision?

Object recognition.

* What do studies around face detection tell us?

We have dedicated systems for, and are very good at, finding faces.
But it is also dependent on experience.

* What is prosopagnosia?

The inability to recognize faces.

* What is myopia?

Nearsightedness.

* What is hyperopia?

Farsightedness.

* What is perceptual constancy?

The ability to perceive objects as having constant shape, size, and colour
despite changes in perspective.

* What is the function of the dorsal stream of vision?

Discovering where, in space, objects are located.

* What are monocular and binocular cues?

Single or double eye cues about where objects are located in space.

## 4.4

* What happens when you have synesthesia?

Senses blur together, so you can hear colour or feel sounds.

* What is the purpose of the sense of touch?

It allows us to actively investigate our environment.

* What is the function of somatosensory cortex?

Sense of touch.

* What are haptics?

The active, exploratory aspect of touch sensation and perception.
(e.g. roughness)

* What is kinesthesis?

The sense of bodily motion and position.

* What is nociception?

The activity of nerve pathways that respond to uncomfortable situations
(e.g. pain)

* How does gate-control theory explain pain perception?

Our pain is an interaction between nerves that transmit pain and nerves that
inhibit pain messages.

* How can emotions affect our physical pain?

Emotional pain or empathy can increase our physical pain.

* What is a phantom limb sensation?

An amputee feels sensations from a limb that no longer exists.

* What is the gustatory system?

The system that functions in the sensation and perception of taste.

* Which receptors replenish themselves?

Taste and smell receptors.

* What does the gustatory cortex do?

Receive taste information.

* What are papillae?

Bumps that line the tongue and house taste buds.

* What is the olfactory system?

The system involved in smell - detection of airborne particles.

* How are smells detected?

In the olfactory epithelium.
Which sensors are triggered, and the pattern of trigger.

* What is multimodal integration?

The ability to combine our senses into a single integrated perception.

* How smell travel differently in the brain?

Other 4 senses travel to the thalamus first.
Smell goes directly to the limbic system.

* What is the limbic system?

A system responsible for emotional responses and memory.

* What did we use the habituation-dishabituation response to tell us?

The babies can recognize numbers in some way.

* What is the thalamus?

The sensory-relay system of the brain.

* What is the reticular formation?

The part of the brain that influences alertness and attention.

## Up to midterm1

# Consciousness

## 5.1 Sleep

* What is consciousness?

A person's subject awareness, including thoughts, perceptions, experiences of
the world, and self-awareness.

* What is a circannual rhythm?

A yearly cycle.

* What is a infradian rhythm?

A more-than-daily cycle.

* What is a circadian rhythm?

An approximately daily cycle.

* What does the suprachiasmatic nucleus to?

Receives light information and decides whether or not to release melatonin,
making you sleepy.

* What is entrainment?

When biological rhythms become synchronized to external cues such as light,
temperature or clocks.

* What are endogenous rhythms?

Rhythms that are generated by our body independent of external cues.

* What is polysomnography?

A set of objective measurements used to examine physiological variables during sleep.

* What are beta waves?

High frequency, low amplitude. Shows Wakefulness.

* What are alpha waves?

Slower, larger waves than beta. Shows daydreaming, or starting to fall asleep.

* What happens in "stage 1" of sleep?

- Brain waves slow down, have higher amplitudes. ("Theta waves".)
- Breathing, blood pressure, heart rate all decrease slightly.

* What are sleep spindles?

- Found in stage 2 of sleep.
- Clusters of high-frequency, low-amplitude waves.

* What are delta waves?

High-amplitude, low-frequency.

* What is REM sleep?

A stage of sleep characterized by quickening brain waves, inhibited body
movement, and rapid eye movements.

* Why is REM sleep known as paradoxical sleep?

Because the brain waves are like an "wake" person's.

* What is the restore and repair hypothesis w.r.t sleep?

We sleep to restore energy levels and repair wear and tear.

* What is the preserve and protect hypothesis w.r.t sleep?

We sleep to preserve energy and protect ourselves from harm.

* How does sleep deprivation occur?

When we cannot or do not sleep.

* When does sleep displacement occur?

When we can sleep, but cannot sleep at the usual time.

* What is jet lag?

The discomfort when a person feels that their sleep cycles are out of wrack
with the time zone.

* What is manifest content in dreams?

The images and storylines.

* What is latent content in dreams?

The meaning behind a dream.

* What is the activation-synthesis hypothesis of dreams?

Dreams arise from brain activity originating from burst of excitatory messages
from the pons, part of the brain stem.

* What is the problem-solving theory of dreams?

Our thoughts and concerns are continuous from waking to sleeping, and that
dreams help us find solutions.

* What is insomnia?

An extreme lack of ability to sleep.

* What is onset insomnia?

Difficulty falling asleep.

* What is maintenance insomnia?

Cannot easily return to sleep.

* What is terminal insomnia?

Person wakes up too early.

* What are nightmares?

Vivid and disturbing dreams and occur in REM sleep.

* What are night terrors?

Intense bouts of panic that awaken the person.

* What is restless legs syndrome?

A persistent feeling of discomfort in the legs and the urge to shift them
into different positions.

* What is somnambulism?

Sleepwalking.

* What is sleep apnea?

Temporary inability to breathe when sleeping.

* What is narcolepsy?

Person experiences extreme daytime sleepiness and sleep attacks.

* What is hypnosis?

A procedure of inducing a heightened state of suggestibility.

## 5.2

* What are ideomotor suggestions?

Specific actions that could be performed, such as holding a pose.

* What are challenge suggestions?

Actions that "cannot be performed", subject appears to lose ability.

* What are cognitive-perceptual suggestions?

Remembering or forgetting something.

* What is dissociation theory w.r.t hypnosis?

Consciousness has two parts: Observer and hidden observer.

* What is social-cognitive theory w.r.t hypnosis?

Beliefs and expectations contribute to increased suggestibility.

* What is hypnosis used for?

Cognitive hypnotherapy: Treatment of depression.
Treatment of pain.

* What is mediation?

A shift in consciousness to a state where one is highly focused, and in
control of mental processes.

* What is focused mediation?

When distracting thoughts appear, accept them and nudge their attention back.

* What is open-monitoring mediation?

Train the mind to avoid the influence of distractions.

* What is brain death?

The brain no longer functions.

* What is a coma?

Complete loss of consciousness.

* What is persistent vegetative state?

Minimal to no consciousness. Patient eyes may open, and person may sleep.

* What is the Glasgow Coma Scale?

A 15-item checklist to determine consciousness.

* What is the minimally conscious state?

Inconsistently showing consciousness.

* What is locked-in syndrome?

Person is awake and aware, but cannot move body.

* What is tolerance w.r.t addiction?

Need higher dose to achieve same high.

* What is physical dependence w.r.t addiction?

The need to use drug to avoid physical symptoms.

* What is psychological dependence w.r.t addiction?

Addiction without any physical symptoms.

* What are psychoactive drugs?

Drugs that affect thinking, behaviour, perception and emotion.

* What are stimulants?

Drugs that speed up the nervous system.

* What are hallucinogenic drugs?

Substances that produce perceptual distortions.

* What are opiates?

Drugs that reduce pain and induce euphoria.

* What are sedative drugs?

Drugs that depress activity of the nervous system

# Learning

## 6.1

* What is learning?

A process by which behaviour of knowledge changes as a result of experience.

* What is cognitive learning?

Reading, listening, taking tests to acquire new information.

* What is associative learning?

Classical conditioning and operant conditioning.

* What is classical conditioning?

Learning that occurs when a neutral stimulus elicits a response that was
caused by another stimulus.

* What is a stimulus?

An external event or cue that elicits a response.

* What is an unconditioned stimulus?

A stimulus that elicits a reflex response without learning.

* What is an unconditioned response?

An unlearned reaction to an unconditioned stimulus.

* What is a conditioned stimulus?

A once-neutral stimulus that later elicits a conditioned response, because it
has a history of being paired with an unconditioned stimulus.

* What is a condition response?

The learned response that occurs to the conditioned stimulus.

* How does the brain change in response to classical conditioning?

Weak synapses (for CS) fires at the same time as strong synapses (for US).

* What is acquisition?

The initial phase of learning in which a response is established.

* What is extinction?

The loss or weakening of a conditioned response which a conditioned stimulus
and unconditioned stimulus no longer occur together.

* What is spontaneous recovery?

The reoccurrence of a previously extinguished conditioned response, after some
time has passed since extinction.

* What is stimulus generalization?

A process in which a response that originally occurs to a specific stimulus also
occurs to different, though similar, stimuli.

* What is discrimination?

An organism learns to respond to one original stimulus but not to new stimuli
that may be similar to the original stimulus.

* What is preparedness?

The biological predisposition to rapidly learn a response to a particular class
of stimuli.

* What is conditioned taste aversion?

The acquired dislike or disgust of a food or drink because it was paired with
illness.

* What is latent inhibition?

Frequent experience with the CS before the US makes classical conditioning
less likely to occur.

## 6.2

* What is operant conditioning?

A type of learning in which behaviour is influenced by consequences.

* What is contingency?

The fact that an action has consequences.

* What is reinforcement?

A process in which an event or reward that follows a response increase the
likelihood of that response occurring again.

* What is the law of effect?

The idea that responses followed by satisfaction will occur again
(and those that are not will not).

* What is reinforcer?

A stimulus that is contingent upon a response, that increases the probability
of that response occurring again.

* What is punishment?

A process that decreases the future probability of a response.

* What is negative reinforcement?

The strengthening of a behaviour by removing a stimulus.

* What is avoidance learning?

A specific type of negative reinforcement that removes the possibility that
a stimulus will occur.

* What is escape learning?

Learning that occurs if a response removes a stimulus that is already
present.

* What is positive punishment?

A process in which a behaviour decreases in frequency because it was followed
by a particular, usually unpleasant, stimulus.

* What is negative punishment?

A process that occurs when a behaviour decreases because it removes a
particular stimulus.

* What are primary reinforcers?

Reinforcing stimuli that satisfy basic motivational needs.

* What is secondary reinforcers?

Stimuli that acquire their reinforcing effects only after we learn that they
have value.

* What is a discriminative stimulus?

A cue or event that indicates that a response will be reinforced.

* What is shaping?

A procedure in which a specific operant response is created by reinforcing
successive approximations of that response.

* What are schedules of reinforcement?

Rules that determine when reinforcement is available.

* What is continous reinforcement?

Every response made results in reinforcement.

* What is partial reinforcement?

Only a certain number of responses are rewarded.

* What is the partial reinforcement effect?

Organisms that have been conditioned under partial reinforcement resist
extinction longer than those conditioned under continuous reinforcement.

## Slides

* What kind of behaviour does a fixed ratio reward schedule encourage?

High rate of action, then pause.

* What kind of behaviour does a variable ratio reward schedule encourage?

High rate of action with little pause.

* What kind of behaviour does a fixed interval reward schedule encourage?

Bursts of action as the interval approaches.

* What kind of behaviour does a variable interval reward schedule encourage?

Slow and steady action.

# Intelligence

## 9.1

* What is anthropometrics?

Methods of measuring physical and mental variation in humans.

* What is intelligence?

The ability to think, understand, and reason to overcome obstacles.

* What is the mental age?

The average intellectual ability score for children of a specific age.

* What is the Stanford-Binet test?

A test intended to measure innate levels of intelligence.

* What is IQ?

Intelligence quotient.

* What is the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale?

The most common intelligence test today for adolescents and adults.

* What is Raven's Progressive Matrices?

An intelligence test that is based on pictures, not words, making it
relatively unaffected by language or cultural background.

* What is a stereotype threat?

Negative stereotypes about a group cause that group to underperform on
ability tests.

* What is entity theory?

The belief that intelligence is a fixed characteristic and is hard to change.

* What is incremental theory?

The belief that intelligence can be shaped by experiences and effort.

## 9.2

* What is a savant?

An individual with low mental capacity in most domains, but extraordinary
abilities in other specific areas.

* What is factor analysis?

A statistical technical that examines correlations between variables to find
clusters of related variables.

* What is the general intelligence factor?

Coined by Spearman, it represented a person's mental energy. Some people had
more of it, which made them smarter.

* What are primary mental abilties?

Coined by Thurstone, seven factors that contributed to a person's overall
mental ability.

* What is fluid intelligence?

A type of intelligence used in learning new information and solving new
problems not based on knowledge the person already possesses.

* What is crystallized intelligence?

A type of intelligence that draws upon past learning and experience.

* What is the triarchic theory of intelligence?

Coined by Gardner, intelligence is divided into 3 parts:

- Analytical, book smarts
- Practical, street smarts
- Creative, new ideas

* What is the theory of multiple intelligences?

A model claiming that there are eight (or nine now) different forms of
intelligence, each independent from the others.

* What are some differences between male and female intelligence?

Males are better at spatial reasoning.
Females are better at verbal reasoning.

## Slides

* How is IQ correlated with academic and career achievements?

There is a 0.33 correlation between IQ, and high GPA or wages.

* What is a counter-argument for the IQ correlation?

Might be just due to the perceived importance of IQ and intelligence testing.
Therefore, this effect might be an artificial creation of our society.
e.g. Imagine if we stressed the importance of height. Over some time we might
have height be a predictor of success instead.

* What did Ree and Earles say about IQ?

If an employer were to only use IQ tests and select the highest scoring
applicant for the job, overall performance of the employees would be
maximized.

* What are the achievements of Sir Francis Galton?

- First intelligence test
- Coined "nature vs nurture"
- Published Heredity Genius
- First questionnaire
- Invented word association test
- Cofounder of statistical concepts such as "normal distribution",
  "correlation", "linear regression"

* What is intelligence, according to Galton?

A biological, heredity system that exists in the power and efficient brain
and nervous system.

* What is the principle of eugenics?

You can improve a population through selective breeding.

* Why did Galton create the intelligence test?

To find "good stock" at a young age so that they can be provided with extra
privileges to nuture them.

* What are some examples of Galton's intelligence questions?

- "When can you feel the difference in weight between two hands?"

* How did Galton get, and use, his data?

He went all "travelling salesman" and put on "shows" to get such data.
Afterwards, he used his invented linear regression to find correlations in the
data.

* What was Galton's conclusion on the principle of eugenics?

Galton's eugenics hypothesis was disproved by his data analysis. However people
still believed in it.

* What did Darwin believe about intelligence?

You cannot measure intelligence in an absolute sense. You need to measure it
with regards to a specific context. People have specialties and are more
intelligent in those areas.

* What are the poor laws?

You could be thrown into prison for being poor.

* What were Binet's beliefs about intelligence?

That intelligence was primarily based on nuture, not nature.

* According to Binet's what's the relationship between intelligence and age?

Intelligence is the difference between mental age and chronological age.

* What is retardation, according to Binet?

Being behind in mental age by more than 2 years.

* What is intelligence according to Binet?

- Tendency to take and maintain a definite direction
- Capacity to adapt to achieve a desired end
- Power of auto-criticism

* What is the difference between Binet's and Galton's beliefs about intelligence

Binet believed that intelligence is a product of the environment.
Galton believed that intelligence is a product of the person.

* What are some of Binet's sample questions for intelligence?

2yo:

- Follow lighted match
- Unwrap and eat candy
- Shake hands

6yo: TODO

12yo:

- Make rhymes for words
- Construct a sentence using 3 given words
- Mentally reverse the hands of a lock: 3:20 -> 4:15

* How did Binet determine mental age?

Run the Binet-Simon test.
Base age = level at which they got all questions right
Final age = base age + 1/5 for each later item correct

* What is Spearman's two factor theory for intelligence?

There are two factors: "s" (specific) and "g" (general).

The "g" factor is general intelligence, an overall mental ability common to
all intellectual tasks. This is biological, and draws parallel with Galton's
idea.

The "s" factor is specific intelligence, mental abilities applicable to only
specific tasks. This is learned, and draws parallel with Binet's theory.

* How is IQ originally calculated?

Mental age / chronological age * 100

* What was Terman's abuse of IQ testing?

Administering an English IQ test to 4 children (of which English was their
second language) to conclude that those races had lower intelligence.

Furthermore, he believes that if you have a low intelligence, you should
"remove yourself from the gene pool".

* How did the English army plan to use IQ testing?

Use IQ testing to see who becomes a foot soldier, and who becomes an officer.

* What did Wechsler believe intelligence came from?

A combination of environment and person. We come into the world with some
potential, that is enhanced through experience.

* What are some modern uses of IQ testing?

- Estimation of general intelligence.
- Identify specific assets and liabilities
- Psychological diagnosis

* How is the IQ score determined today?

- Scores are standardized according to the normal distribution with a SD of 15.

# Motivation

## 11.1

* What is motivation?

The initiation of behaviours that direct organisms toward certain goals.

* What is a drive?

A biological trigger that tells us we may be deprived of something we need, and
to seek it out.

* What is homeostasis?

The physiological processes that allow our body to maintain consistent
internal states.

* What is allostasis?

The anticipation of future needs.

* What is glucose?

A sugar that serves as a primary energy source for the brain.

* What is satiation?

The point in a meal when we are no longer motivated to eat.

* What is the lateral hypothalamus responsible for?

Starting hunger.

* What is the ventromedial region of the hypothalamus responsible for?

Ending hunger.

* Why do we crave fats?

We have specialized receptors on our tongues that like fat.

* What is ghrelin?

A hormone secreted in the stomach that increases appetite.

* What is the unit bias?

The belief that the unit of sale or portioning is an appropriate amount to
consume.

* What is social facilitation?

Being encouraged to eat more for social reasons.

* What is impression management?

Eating less in order to have people see them in a different way.

* What is modelling?

Eating whatever others eat.

* What is obesity?

A disorder of positive energy balance.

* What is anorexia nervosa?

A eating disorder that involves starvation and intense fear of gaining weight.
And a denial of the serious consequences of severely low weight.

* What is bulimia nervosa?

An eating disorder that is characterized by periods of food deprivation,
binge-eating, and purging.

## 11.2

* What is libido?

The motivation for sexual activity and pleasure.

* What is the sexual response cycle?

The phases of physiological change during sexual activity.
- Excitement
- Plateau
- Orgasm
- Resolution

* What is the refractory period?

A time period during which erection and orgasm are physically possible.

* What is the difference between men and women w.r.t sexual response cycles?

Men typically have one and only one orgasm.
Women typically can have 0-many orgasms.

* What is sexual orientation?

The consistent preference for sexual relations with members of some sex.

* What are gender roles?

The accepted attitudes and behaviours of males and females in a given
society.

* What are sexual scripts?

The set of rules and assumptions about the sexual behaviours of males and
females.

* What is testosterone?

A hormone that is involved in the development of sex characteristics and the
motivation of sexual behaviour.

* What are 3 important events that changed sexual scripts?

1. Women's Right movements
2. Increasing presence of women in the workforce.
3. The birth-control pill.

* What is sex guilt?

Negative emotional feelings for having violated culturally accepted
standards of appropriate sexual behaviour.

## 11.3

* What is the need to belong?

The motivation to maintain relationships that involve pleasant feelings between
people.

* What is passionate love?

Physical and emotional longing for the other person.

* What is compassionate love?

The affection we feel when our lives are intertwined with another person.

* What is achievement motivation?

The drive to perform at high levels and to accomplish significant goals.

* What is an approach goal?

An enjoyable and pleasant incentive that a person is drawn toward, such as
praise.

* What is an avoidance goal?

An attempt to avoid an unpleasant outcome, such as shame.

* What are 3 universal needs w.r.t motivation?

- Relatedness, feeling connected with others
- Autonomy, the need to feel in control of your own life.
- Competence, the ability to perform a task at a satisfying skill level.

* What is self-efficacy?

An individual's confidence that they can plan and execute a course of action.

* What is self-determination theory?

One's ability to achieve their goals is influenced by the degree to which
one is in control of their actions to achieve those goals.

* What is extrinsic motivation?

Motivation geared toward gaining rewards or avoiding embarassment.

* What is amotivational?

Having little motivation to perform a behaviour.

* What is intrinsic motivation?

The process of being internally motivated to perform behaviours.

* What is the framing effect?

When the correct course of action is not obvious, the different phrasing of the
question can produce different results.

## Slides

* What are the 3 ways we measure motivation?

1. Intensity: Energy, enthusiasm, degree of effort exerted.
2. Direction: Avoidance of alternative activities. Degree of task difficulty selected.
3. Persistence: Commitment to choices, continued effort following frustration.

* What are instincts?

Fixed, rigid, and predictable patterns of behaviour that is

- Not acquired by learning
- Common to all members of the species
- Likely rooted in genes

* Are humans motivated by instincts?

It seems that our behaviour is less prescribed by genetics than other animals.
We have general patterns explained as emerging through natural selection.

* What is the drive reduction theory w.r.t motivation?

We have a drive to do certain things, like eating, and we do things to fulfill
that drive.

* What is the psychodynamic theory w.r.t motivation?

We have unconscious instincts, needs, and wishes. This causes intrapsychic
conflicts.

"If I haven't aggressed in a period of time, the pressure keeps building."

Instead of aggressing, through, you can instead do some aggressive-like
behaviours to release some of that need and gain catharsis.

* What is the law of effect w.r.t motivation?

If something has a positive outcome, we are more likely to do the behaviour.
Similarily, we are less likely to do some behaviour which is less desirable.

* What is Maslow's hierarchy of needs?

Humans strive to ensure that basic needs are satisfied before they find
motivation to pursue goals that are higher on the hierarchy.

* What are some critiques of Maslow's hierarchy of needs?

- There is no empirical support for the hierarchy.
- Many of the needs "higher up" are just as important as the needs below (e.g. attractment)
- Many of the self-actualized people turned out to be "arrogant idiots"

* What is Roger's Discrepancy Theory w.r.t motivation?

We have a continuous desire to be our ideal self. We are continuously comparing
our current self to our ideal self. We want to partake in behaviours to reach
our ideal self.

If the discrepancy between the ideal and the real got too far apart, then it is
demotivating. However, if the discrepancy is closer, then we are more motivated
because self-actualization is more attainable.

This is a never-ending state, because as the person is achieving their goals,
they move their ideal-self even further. But it is something that we can strive
to be.

* What is the expectancy approach w.r.t motivation?

We make choices, and our motivation is determined by those choices.
I have an expected outcome, which includes:

- The desired outcome.
- The likelihood of achieving that outcome.

Wherever the gain x likely equation comes out the best, that's where people
are most motivated to do the task.

* What is the criticism of the expectancy approach w.r.t motivation?

People do not always choose the "best" choices. Some choose the most dangerous
choice, or others choose the easiest choice.

* What is the self-efficacy theory w.r.t motivation?

An improvement on the expectancy approach. It can be equated to a statement
of confidence. Before judging the expected value, we first check our efficacy.

- "Do I have the skills, experience, and strategy to perform the task?"
- "Can I execute under the circumstances?"

If the answer to any of these questions is "no", then confidence plummets. And
then the expected value does not matter.

* What are some sources of self-efficacy?

- Successful past performances.
  - Long lasting source.
- Vicarious experiences
  - Learning from others.
  - Only influential until own reproduction
- Social persuasion.
  - Depends on credibility of source (which can be damaged)
  - Brief duration.
- Emotional Arousal
  - Getting psyched out/psyched up.
  - Brief duration.

* What is the cognitive valuation theory w.r.t motivation?

A behaviour can be intrinsically rewarding. (play)
The outcome can also be extrinsically rewarding. (work)

If we increase the intrinsic value of an activity, we can improve the
motivation of the task, because it's a second source of motivation.

* How does cognitive valuation theory explain burnout?

If you are doing a task that has intrinsic rewards, and then you add
extrinsic rewards, there is an additive effect.

However, in some cases, this can backfire when the extrinsic interest dominates
the motivation, it can undermine the intrinsic rewards and cause the intrinsic
rewards to fade away.

* What were some of the professor's example for burnout?

- Sports players, where the money overtakes them. Recovered by taking a break
  and playing other sports.
- A dentist, where the number of patients increased too much. Recovered by
  volunteering at Doctor's without Borders.

* When is extrinsic motivation additive vs undermining?

Additive:
  Informative outcomes
  Feedback about skills, capacities, and quality of performance
  Motivated to produce maximum performance to test skills and efficacy
Undermining:
  Controlling outcomes
  Controlling freedom and mandatory performance
  Motivated to produce minimum performance necessary to produce extrinsic rewards.

* What are the two sources of positive self-esteem w.r.t social identity?

1. Personal identity; distinguishes self from others; enhanced by achievements; skills
2. Social identity; aligns self with others, enhanced by affiliations; groups

* What is the buffering hypothesis w.r.t social identity?

If you have good personal AND social identity, then you're not as impacted by
damages to a single identity because the other one can provide a buffer for you.

(e.g. Athletes recover better from academic problems.)

* What characterizes a robust esteem w.r.t social identity theory?

When the person has multiple personal and social identities, their self
esteem is robust to damage.

* What is the self-serving bias?

We align ourselves with success, and distance ourselves from failure. "We won",
"they lost".

* What is approach avoidance w.r.t esteem strategies?

- When I have good self-esteem, I want to choose the task when a 50% chance
  of success.
- However, if I have weak self-esteem, I want to choose the task with the
  highest chance of success.
- Also, if I have weak self-esteem, I might also choose the hardest task,
  taking a defensive esteem challenge. If I fail it doesn't matter since
  everyone fails.

# End of midterm2

# Freud

* Who created the "classic psychiatry" scenario?

Sigmund Freud. Who first did the couch and table behind thing.

* Who wrote "The Interpretation of Dreams"?

Sigmund Freud.

* What is the "Id"?

Something that only exists in the unconscious.
Operates on the pleasure principle.
Contains inborn biological instincts, consisting of
  Eros (the life force)
  Thanatos (the death force)

* What did Freud think the Eros was?

A reflection of natural selection, the force that makes our species evolve and
become greater.

* What did Freud think the Thanatos was?

The counter-evolutionary force that is trying to drag our species back into the
past.

* What is the "ego"?

Something that exists in the conscious and preconscious levels.
Operates on the reality principle.
Realistic regulation of thoughts and actions.

* What is the "superego"?

TODO

* What was Freud's view of the human mind?

The mind is a mental iceberg.
You have a conscious level that contains your thoughts and perceptions.
Followed by your subconscious level that contains your memories and knowledge.
Lastly, the majority, is your unconscious level that contains your fears,
violent thoughts, immoral urges, etc...

* What are some routes to the unconscious?

1. Free associations. Which is why Freud had the couch.
2. Mistakes. "Freudian slips" forgetting words, names, etc.
3. Dreams. Latent content, "royal road to the unconsciousness".
4. Projective tests. Standardized set of ambiguous prompts designed to reveal something.

* What are some analysises that Freud made from dreams?

Broken arm => Broken (e.g. marriage) vows
King or Queen => Parents; Authority figures
Elongated Objects => Male genitalia
Opening Umbrella => Penile erection
Hollow objects, rooms => Female genitalia
Entrances and exits => sexual acts.

* What is the oral psychosexual stage according to Freud?

Between 0-1.5 years.
Erogenous zone: Mouth.
Key healthy development is weaning.

* What are the two personalities that can emerge from oral psychosexual stage?

Oral Dependent:
  Comes from excessive gratification.
  Makes you passive, dependent, gullible
Oral Aggressive:
  Comes from excessive frustration (not enough stimulation)
  Argumentative, cynical, exploitative.

* What are some expressions of the oral psychosexual stage?

Gum-chewing, nail-biting, smoking, kissing, eating disorders, alcoholism.

* What is the anal psychosexual stage according to Freud?

Between 1.3-3 years.
Erogenous zone: Anus.
Key Task: Toilet training.

* What are the two personalities that can emerge from the anal psychosexual stage?

Anal Expulsive:
  Excessive gratification
  Sloppy, careless, messy, disorderly
Anal Retentive:
  Excessive frustration.
  Compulsive cleanliness, orderly, rigid, stubborn.

* What are some expression of the anal psychosexual stage?

Neil Simon's "The Odd Couple".

* What is the phallic psychosexual stage according to Freud?

Between 3-6 years.
Erogenous zone: Genitals
Key Task: Sexual identity

* What are the two personalities that can emerge from the phallic psychosexual stage?

Boy's Oedipal Complex:
  Incestuous attraction to mother.
  Castration anxiety.
Girl's Electra Complex:
  Incestuous attraction to father.
  Penis envy.

* What are some expressions of the phallic psychosexual stage?

Males: "macho" expression.
Females: Flirting "girly" or overly dominant.

* What is the genital stage according to Freud?

From puberty onwards.
Erogenous zone: Genitals.
Key Task: Intimacy and procreation.

* What was the medical conflict against Freud?

- There was evidence of biological determinants.
- AMA abandons psychoanalysis for pharmacology.

* What was the economic conflict against Freud?

- Psychoanalysis had an exorbitant cost.
- Insurers abandon psychoanalysis for cheaper treatments.

* What was the legal conflict against Freud?

- There were some indefensible claims of repressed sexual abuse.
  - Some people, during psychoanalysis, said that someone sexually abused them.
  - And there was no ability to prove their innocence.
- Defenders abandon psychoanalysis for scientific evidence.
  - To avoid people going to prison for such claims, people had to
    attack the validity of psychoanalysis.

* What are some flaws in Freud's scientific method?

- Some of his theories (e.g. id) are hard to prove or disprove.
- He did not build his theories on a broad sample of people, only with people
  who had specific psychological problems.
- He was motivated to see his patents as unwell, because they would be paying them.

* How does Freud's work persist today?

In literature: Conflict, sex, and aggression.

# Personality

## 12.1

* What is personality?

A characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and behaving that is unique to
each individual, and remains consistent over time.

* What is the difference between the idiographic and nomothetic approach to personality measurement?

Idiographic: Creating detailed descriptions of a specific person's personality.
Nomothetic: Examine personality between many people.

* What is a personality trait?

A description of a person's habitual patterns of behaviour.

* What is the Barnum effect?

It's easy to make people think that you're measuring their personality.

* What is the Five Factor Model?

A trait-based theory of personality based on 5 major dimensions:
Openness: Open or closed to new ideas/experiences.
Conscientiousness: Efficient and disciplined or not.
Extraversion: Socializers and sensation seekers.
Agreeableness: Easy to like.
Neuroticism: Mental and emotional stability.

* What is honesty-humility?

An addition to the Five Factor Model to measure of how honest people are.

* What is the dark triad?

Machiavellianism: Tendency to manipulate
Psychopath: Shallow emotional responses
Narcissism: Focusing on the self.

Describes people that are likely to cause harm.

* What is Right-Wing Authoritarianism?

1. Obeying orders
2. Supporting aggression against "others".
3. Strongly believe in maintaining the existing social order.

"Highly problematic set of personality characteristics".

* What are temperaments?

Personalities for babies. Not fully developed.
Well-adjusted, under-controlled, inhibited.

* How do personalities develop?

They tend to reinforce themselves over time.
"Neurons that wire together fire together."
The 5 traits get better scores over time.

* What is a personality state?

A temporary engagement that influences behaviour.
Locations, Associations, Activites, Subjective states.

* What is the theory of reciprocal determinism?

Behaviour, internal and external factors interact with each other to form a
personality.

## 12.2

* What is WEIRD and why is it a problem?

Western, educated, industrialized, rich, democratic. Most studies are done in
WEIRD countries but they only contain 12% of the world's population.

* Why are twins used to determine genetic personality influences?

Because twins have the same nature but different nuture.

* How does personality differ between genders?

The mean is different (women are higher), but the difference is small.

* What is humorism?

Personality disorders explained by imbalances in key fluids.

* What is phrenology?

Personality can be measured by looking at outer skull.

* What is the arousal theory of extraversion?

Extraverted people have a higher threshold for arousal. Introverted people want
to be alone to avoid overstimulus. This is controlled by the ARAS, ascending
reticular activating system.

* What is the BAS and BIS?

Behaviour activation/inhibition system. Activation system arouses the person
to do things. Inhibition system warns person to avoid things.

## 12.3

* What are defense mechanisms?

Things we do unconsciously to avoid stress.
Repression, Denial, Rationalization.

* What is analytical psychology?

Focusing on the role of unconscious archetypes in personality development.

* What the personal and collective unconscious?

Personal: Repository of experiences and patterns.
Collective: Memories of humankind.

* What is the person-centered perspective?

People are basically good.

## Slides

* What is state shyness?

A phenomenon where you're shy in certain situations only. There are usually only
minimal negative consequences.

* What is trait shyness?

15-25% of the population. Pervasive shyness across situations and time.
There are severe consequences because they
- Avoid social events.
- Make others uncomfortable.
- Inhibits communication and assertiveness.
- Prone to low self-esteem.

* What is the trait view of personality?

We are made up of traits that differ from person to person.

* How do researchers determine your social desirability score?

- Ask the same question multiple times.
- Ask the opposite question.
- Ask the same question with different wording.

# Disorders

## 15.1

* What are asylums?

Facilities for the mentally ill.

* What is borderline personality disorder?

Intense extremes between positive and negative emotions.

* What is narcissistic personality disorder?

Inflated self-importance and need for attention.

* What is histrionic personality disorder?

Excessive attention seeking behaviour.

## 15.3

* What is generalized anxiety disorder?

Frequently elevated levels of anxiety.

* What is panic disorder?

Occasional episodes of sudden, very intense fear.

* What is agoraphobia?

Isolating themselves to avoid public panic attacks.

## 15.4

* What is schizophrenia?

Significant breaks in reality.

* What are the 3 phases of schizophrenia?

Prodromal: Becomes confused
Active: Halluciations and bad thoughts.
Residual: Lessened symptoms.

## Slides

* What are some cognitive symptoms of depression?

Negative cognitions/attitude about self, world, and future.

* What is the influence of genetics on mental illness?

There is a risk factor for mental illnesses that is genetically rooted. But
there is also a lot of room for nuture too!

* What is the 5-HTT short gene?

A serotonin-transporter gene. Mutation of this gene increases serotonin
movement, reducing the amount of it in the synaptic cleft.

* What are SSRIs used for?

Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors. Increases the amount of active
serotonin to treat depression.

* What is the depressive attribution style?

Take credit for failure, distance self from success.

* Do schizophrenic people have a split personality?

No. That's people with Dissociative Identity Disorder.

* Are schizophrenic people dangerous?

Statistically no. They just have a bizarre nature of behaviour.

* Can you be cured of schizophrenia?

Many enjoy a full recovery, but there are people who have it forever.

* Are schizophrenic people more creative?

Small positive correlation (except the Paranoid type).
May be product of "divergent" thinking.

* What is the DSM-V Criteria for schizophrenia?

A: Two (or more) of the following symptoms:
- Delusions
- Hallucinations
- Disorganized speech
- Grossly disorganized or catatonic behaviour
- Negative emotions
B: One or more major areas of function such as work, interpersonal relations,
   or self-care are markedly below previous level
C: Continuous signs of the disturbance persist for at least 6 months.

* What are some positive symptoms of schizophrenia?

- Hallucinations, especially auditory
- Delusions, especially persecutory
- Disorganized thought and nonsensical speech
- Bizarre behaviours

* What is the pharmacological treatment of schizophrenia?

- Antipsychotics
- Chlorpromazine developed in France as an antihistamine

* What are the effects of chlorpromazine?

- Binds of dopamine receptors.
- Alleviates positive symptoms of schizophrenia.
- Side-effects include Parkinson's-like effects.

* What is the revolving-door phenomenon with schizophrenia?

There is a 70-80% recidivism rate.
Causes:
1. Inability to care for self
2. Return to dysfunctional environment
3. Lack of social or work skills
4. Stop taking medications

* What is Milieu Therapy?

Living in a supportive therapeutic environment.
Removed from dysfunctional environment.

## 16.2

* What are insight therapies?

Involves dialogue between client and therapist.

# Social Persuasion

* What are the two cognitive pathways to affect attitudes?

1. Central Route Persuasion; reasoning, rationality.
2. Peripheral Route Persuasion; emotional association, classical conditioning.

* What is informational conformity?

- Invented by Muzafer Sherif.
- We want to be right.

* What is normative conformity?

- Invented by Soloman Asch.
- We want to be liked, and we are willing to be wrong to be liked.

* What are the 6 persuasion principles for compliance?

1. Authority. People defer to credible experts.
2. Liking. People respond more affirmatively to people they like.
3. Social proof. Use examples of others.
4. Reciprocity. People feel obliged to repay in kind what they received.
5. Consistency. People tend to honour their public commitments.
6. Scarcity. People prize what is scarce.

* What is the foot-in-the-door technique?

If you have a large request you want of somebody, get them to say yes to a
small request. It will be harder for them to save no an extension of the
small request.

* What is the low-ball technique?

Initially giving you a small deal. And then giving you a bigger deal afterwards
that you might have not been as likely to accept initially.

* What are some factors influencing obedience to authority?

- Location (e.g. office buildings cause less obediance.)
- Characteristics (e.g. clothing) of the person in charge.
- Location of person in change.
- Victim in the same room.
- Participant required to restrain victim.
- Two (not one) confederates rebel and refuse to continue

# Dating

* What is success-for-sex?

Women are trading sex for the men's success. This is obvious a very sexist
viewpoint.

There was some evidence for this in classifies:
- Men said they were looking for a pretty, young, fertile women
  - Women were offering these things.
- Women were seeking maturity, masculinity, affluence.
  - Men were offering these things.

* What is inclusive fitness?

The motivation to pass on our genes. Has three objectives:
1. Survive to puberty.
2. Procreate
3. Get offspring to survive to puberty.

* What is the optimal strategy for women w.r.t dating?

Women have a once-per-month genetic packet, the egg, that has a limited lifetime
number (400). Therefore, they want to keep a partner.

* What is the optimal strategy for men w.r.t dating?

Men have an infinite number of sperm. Therefore, they want to get as many
partners as possible.

* What is the family option?

- Men abandon opportunistic strategy for paternal investment.
- Women provide sexual exclusivity.
- Men want healthy young mates so they get to have many children.
- Women want dedication.

* What are dating rituals?

- Women determine "shopping list" of desirable attributes.
- Women create male competition.
- Men demonstrate suitability as husband.
- Women choose winners.

* What shapes do men and women want from each other?

Men: Hourglass - better nursing, better pregnancy.
Women: Triangle - strength and muscle.

* What is the beauty bias?

The most important factor in initial attraction.
"You can tell a book by its cover". Beautiful people are seen as healthy, happy,
successful, and socially skilled.
Beautiful people is correlated with:
- More friends, more dates
- Better jobs, more pay, less legal punishment.

* What are the downsides of beauty?

- Need to maintain beauty. (Beauty has an expiration date.)
- Negative stereotypes: Dumb, vain, arrogant.
- Object of envy and jealousy.
- Self-esteem dilemma: Discounting praise and positive feedback.
  - People don't want to disappoint good-looking people, so they are less
    willing to take feedback.

* What is the top ten most attractive men actions?

1. Good sense of humour.
2. Sympathetic to troubles.
3. Good manners.
4. Well-groomed.
5. Spends a lot of time.
6. Offers to help
7. Showers daily.
8. Healthy appearance.
9. Exercises
10. He wears attractive outfits.

* What is the top ten most attractive women actions?

1. Good sense of humour.
2. Well-groomed.
3. Sympathetic to troubles.
4. Good manners.
5. Showers daily.
6. Physically fit.
7. Good jokes.
8. Effort to spent time.
9. Stylish clothes
10. Offers to help

# Social psychology

## 13.1

* What is mimicry?

Doing things that others do.

* What is the chameleon effect?

We consciously copy what other people do.

* What are social norms?

Guidelines for how to behave.

* What is social loafing?

When an individual puts less effort into working on a task with others.
Caused by:
- Low efficacy beliefs
- Believing that one's contributions are not important
- Not caring about group's outcome
- Feeling like others are not trying very hard.

* What is social facilitation?

When a person tries harder due to the presence of others.

* What is groupthink?

When people cannot express their view, and must conform to the group.

* What is the Asch experiment?

The group gave the wrong answer, see what the person does.

* What is normative and informational influence?

Normative: Pressure to be accepted.
Informational: Pressure to be right.

* What is the bystander effect?

The presence of other people actually reduces the likelihood of helping.

* What is the diffusion of responsibility?

The responsibility for one action is spread across more than one person, making
no person feel responsible.

* What is pluralistic ignorance?

A disjunction between private beliefs and public behaviour.

# 13.2

* What are explicit and implicit processes?

Explicit: Conscious thought.
Implicit: Unconscious thought.

* What are dual-process models?

Models that account for both explicit and implicit processes.

* What is person perception?

The processes by which we judge and categorize others.

* What are self-fulfilling prophecies?

When our expectation creates the outcome.

* What is the false consensus effect?

The tendency to project our self-concept onto the social world.

* What is naive realism?

We believe what we see is what they are.

* What are self-serving biases?

Bias towards making ourselves be better.

* What are internal and external attributions?

Internal: Behaviour is explained as an internal characteristic.
External: Behaviour is explained as an consequence of the situation.

* What is the fundamental attribution error?

We judge others internally, ourselves externally.

* What is ingroup bias?

Seeing ingroups as superior to outgroups.

* What is the minimal group paradigm?

We will do anything to form and reinforce groups.

* What is a stereotype?

A set of beliefs about a group.

* What is prejudice?

Negative attitudes toward other groups.

* What is discrimination?

Disfavouring other groups.

* What is the contact hypothesis?

Social contact between members of different groups is extremely important to
overcoming prejudice.

## 13.3

* What is the elaboration likelihood model?

When people care, they will be persuaded by the argument.
When people don't care, they will be persuaded by other things.

* What is the central and peripheral route to persuasion?

Central: Information
Peripheral: Style

* What are some ways to use the central route effectively?

- Make it personal.
- Acknowledge the other side.
- Use some emotions.

* What is construal-level theory?

Information affects us differently depending on our psychological distance.

* What is the identifiable victim effect?

People care more when there's a single person suffering than many.

* What are the experiental and analytic systems?

Experiental: Emotional quick responses.
Analytic: Logical and slow thinking.

* What are some value frames?

Biospheric: Save the polar bears
Social-altruistic: The poor will be hurt.
Egoistic: Self-enhancement

* What is attitude inoculation?

Exposing people to a weak counter-argument and then refuting the argument.
This makes them more resistant to change.

* What is processing fluency?

The ease at which information is processed.

* What are some ways to use the peripheral route effectively?

- Use authority figures.
- Social validation.
- Reciprocity.

* What is the door-in-the-face technique?

Big request that gets denied, more likely to accept small request.

* What is the foot-in-the-door technique?

Making a simple request followed by a more substantial request.

* What is cognitive dissonance theory?

When we hold inconsistent beliefs, we want to make them consistent.